Questo articolo è disponibile anche in: Italian English

Question

Reverend Father Angelo,

I would like to submit to you a doubt that arose while attending the Church history course.

How do we affirm the legitimacy of the popes who, before the decree of Nicholas II formally regulated the election by the cardinals, were elected by acclamation (possibly by Roman families fighting each other) or imposed by the Holy Roman Emperor (think of popes of the so-called Reichskirche)?

Thank you and have a good evening.

Daniele

 Answer from the priest

Dear Daniele,

1. In the various historical conjunctures the Lord uses whoever he wants to guide his Church, including the election of the Pope.

The most important thing is that in the Pope there is apostolic succession, that is, episcopal consecration.

Because one is Pope only because he is the bishop of Rome.

2. In the election of a Pope, human causes are often like the reverse of a garment.

If you look only at the reverse of the garment, you can see a tangle of threads, fabric or lining shredded in so many ways.

The tailor’s hand with all this prepares a dress that is at least decent and sometimes not only beautiful, but extraordinarily beautiful.

The same way does the Lord, because we are sure that “like a stream is the king’s heart in the hand of the Lord; wherever it pleases him, he directs it” (Pro 21,1).

3. For our visitors I would like to transcribe a page from the Bihlmeyer – Tuechle Church History manual to understand the seriousness of the situation in that historical era:

“The situation of chaos in Rome and much of the West continued, indeed it was increasing. It is not without reason that the 10th century is defined as the leaden or iron century: in fact it represents a frightening decadence of every state system, of culture, an unparalleled roughness and brutalization, especially in Italy and France.

Violence and terror dominate almost everywhere.

Continuous raids by the Normans, the Saracens and the Hungarians were plundering countless cities and monasteries, devastating entire regions: every restraint had fallen.

The 909 synod of Trosly near Laon lamented: “The world is full of immorality and adultery, of devastation of churches, of murders and oppression of the poor”. The patrimony of the churches and abbeys mostly ended up in the hands of the nobility. Dioceses in France often became true “private or own churches” of the great, destined to be sold, donated, inherited as family goods. Not rare are lay bishops and abbots.

Among the lower and the higher clergy reigned indifference to the duties of the ecclesiastical state, ignorance, greed, pursuit of pleasures, simony, debauchery.

In the midst of fierce party struggles in Italy, the papacy, deprived of its natural protector, the emperor, declined into the deepest helplessness and became the laughing stock of the noble families of Rome, who, regardless of dignity, placed on the chair of St. Peter their relatives or favorites.

However, while Italy and France were still in complete dissolution, Germany, after the first twenty years of the 10th century, managed to recover from that situation of anarchy into which it had fallen after the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, even reaching improvement of the ecclesiastical situation: this was done by the valiant princes of the Saxon house (919-1024). It was the renewed Germanic kingdom which brought aid to the so deeply humiliated papacy”.

4. Among the Saxon princes of the time it should be mentioned in particular “Alberic II who governed in Rome and in the State of Church with strong hand for 22 years (932-54) almost like a monarch, acting as Senator et princeps omnium Romanorum. He limited his half-brother, Pope John XI, to exercise exclusively his spiritual functions.

The same happened with the four successors who were appointed by him, Leo VII (936-39), Stephen VIII (939-942), Marinus II (942-946) and Agapetus II (946-55). These, moreover, were personally worthy men and worked, supported by Alberic himself and by the excellent Abbot Odo of Cluny, for the improvement of monastic life in and around Rome; the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine became the place of residence of the Cluniac abbots.

On his deathbed, Alberic made the Romans swear that in the next vacant See they would elect his son and heir, the seventeen-year-old Octavian, as pope.

This happened in December of 955. With the name of John XII (955-64) the young prince, a notoriously unworthy person, once again united in one hand the spiritual and secular power of Rome. He was the first to change his name in his appointment as pope; this custom became the rule from the end of the 10th century”(Vol. II, § 88, 1-2).

5. It can be said that the mystical body of Christ (the Church) at least in its external aspect has very often in the course of history been devastated like the body of Christ on the cross.

But despite this weakness, the Church has moved forward.

Not by virtue of her own, though, because in that case she would have sunk by herself a thousand and more times.

But always and only by virtue of the One who, before going up to Heaven, said: “Behold, I am with you always, until the end of the age” (Mt 28:20).

I wish you all the best for your exam and for your future.

I remind you to the Lord and I bless you.

Father Angelo

Translated by Chiara P.